Features, Components and use of Pre-Computer Age To 19th Century - SS1 ICT Lesson Note

These devices collectively represent the evolution of computing devices from manual tools like the abacus to more sophisticated mechanical calculators and machines that laid the groundwork for modern computers. They were essential in shaping the history of computation and automation.

 

i) Abacus: The abacus is one of the earliest known computing devices, dating back to ancient civilizations. An abacus is a traditional counting and calculating tool that has been used for centuries to perform arithmetic operations. It consists of a wooden frame or board with rods or wires running parallel to each other. Each rod is divided into sections, and small beads are moved along the rods to represent numbers and perform calculations. The abacus is often considered one of the earliest forms of calculators and is still used in some cultures and educational settings today.

Structure of an Abacus:

The structure of an abacus can vary, but it typically includes the following components:

1. Frame: The frame is the outer structure that holds the rods and beads in place. It is usually made of wood or another durable material.
2. Rods/Wires: The rods or wires are parallel to each other and are set within the frame. These rods hold the beads and serve as the columns for representing different place values.
3. Beads: The beads are small objects that can be slid along the rods. They are used to represent numbers and perform calculations. There are typically two types of beads on each rod: one type for representing units and another for representing multiple units (usually five).
4. Dividing Bar: This horizontal bar separates the beads on each rod. The beads above the dividing bar represent multiple units (usually five), while the beads below represent individual units.

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ii) Slide Rule: The slide rule, developed in the 17th century, was used for multiplication, division, and other mathematical calculations involving logarithms.. A slide rule is a mechanical calculating device that was widely used before the advent of electronic calculators and computers. It consists of a linear or circular ruler with logarithmic scales and a sliding portion that allows for complex mathematical calculations through relative movement of the scales. Slide rules were a crucial tool for engineers, scientists, and mathematicians in the early to mid-20th century. Here's an overview of its structure, function, and historical significance:

Structure of a Slide Rule:

A basic slide rule consists of the following components:

1. Main Rule: The main body of the slide rule contains logarithmic scales, usually divided into decades. These scales represent numbers in a logarithmic fashion, allowing multiplication and division to be performed through simple addition and subtraction.
2. Slider: The slider is a smaller, movable portion of the slide rule that contains additional logarithmic scales. It can slide along the main rule to align with different points on the scales.
3. Hairline: A thin line or indicator on the slider that is used to read the value on the scales accurately.
4. Cursor: A transparent piece that can be placed over the scales to read values more precisely.

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iii) Napier's Bones: Napier's Bones, also known as Napier's rods or Napier's rods, is a calculating device invented by the Scottish mathematician John Napier in the early 17th century. This device was designed to simplify and expedite the process of multiplication and division, especially for complex calculations involving large numbers.

Napier's Bones consist of a set of numbered rods or sticks, each divided into a series of squares or compartments. The numbers within these compartments are arranged in a specific way to facilitate multiplication and division through a mechanical method. The device essentially acts as a multiplication table in a physical, pre-calculated form. Here is how Napier's Bones work:

1. Multiplication:
• To multiply a number by another number, you would align the two corresponding rods for those numbers.
• The product of the two numbers is read off the intersecting diagonals of the compartments on the rods.

Division:

• For division, you set up the dividend (number to be divided) on one rod and the divisor (number you're dividing by) on another.
• By manipulating the rods and observing the numbers in specific compartments, you can determine the quotient and remainder.

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iv) Pascal Calculator: Invented by Blaise Pascal in the 17th century, this mechanical calculator used a series of gears to perform addition and subtraction. It was a significant advancement in automating mathematical calculations. Blaise Pascal's Calculator, also known as the Pascaline, was one of the earliest mechanical calculators designed to perform arithmetic calculations. The Pascaline played a significant role in the history of computing as one of the first machines that could perform calculations automatically.

Structure and Function:

The Pascaline was a mechanical device consisting of a series of gears, wheels, and dials. It was primarily designed to perform addition and subtraction operations. Here's how it worked:

1. Input and Display: The Pascaline had several numbered dials, each representing a digit from 0 to 9. These dials were used to input numbers and display the results of calculations.
2. Mechanical Gears: Each dial was connected to a set of mechanical gears. When a dial was rotated, it incremented the corresponding digit by one. The gears were designed in such a way that after nine rotations, the next rotation would cause the dial to reset to zero and increment the next higher-order dial.
3. Carry Mechanism: The carry mechanism was a key innovation in the Pascaline. When a dial reached nine and was about to reset, it triggered the rotation of the next higher-order dial, simulating the carry-over that occurs in manual addition.
4. Operational Sequence: To perform addition, a user would set the dials to the numbers they wanted to add and then turn a crank. The machine would automatically add the numbers and display the result.
5. Subtraction: Subtraction was performed using a complementary mechanism. By setting the dials to the number to be subtracted and then cranking, the machine would essentially add the complement of the number, yielding the subtraction result

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v) Leibniz Multiplier: The Leibniz multiplier, also known as the Leibniz wheel or stepped drum, is a mechanical device invented by the German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the late 17th century. It is a historical example of a mechanical calculator designed to perform multiplication and division operations.

The Leibniz multiplier is a cylindrical drum with a series of stepped, toothed sectors arranged along its length. Each sector represents a digit (0-9) of the multiplier. As the drum rotates, the sectors engage with corresponding gears that represent the digits of the multiplicand.

When the drum completes a rotation, the accumulated results from the multiplication are read off from a row of output dials or pointers. Here is a basic overview of how the Leibniz multiplier works for multiplication:

1. Setting the Multiplier: The digits of the multiplier are set using the stepped sectors on the drum. Each sector corresponds to a digit of the multiplier.
2. Setting the Multiplicand: The multiplicand is set using a series of gear wheels or other mechanisms that represent its digits.
3. Rotation: When the handle is turned, the drum rotates. As the drum rotates, the stepped sectors engage with the corresponding gears representing the multiplicand digits.
4. Accumulation of Results: The interaction between the sectors and the gears causes the drum to accumulate the products of multiplication. The accumulated results are read off from output dials or pointers.
5. Carry Mechanism: The mechanism is designed to handle carrying over to the next digit when the product of multiplication exceeds 9. It ensures that the carry is properly propagated to the adjacent dials.

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vi) Jacquard's Loom: Invented by Joseph-Marie Jacquard in the early 19th century, this loom used punched cards to control the weaving of intricate patterns. It's considered one of the early instances of using a mechanical system controlled by punched cards. The Jacquard loom revolutionized the weaving industry by introducing a mechanism for automated and programmable pattern weaving.

Function and Structure:

The Jacquard loom's key innovation was the use of punched cards to control the weaving process. Prior to its invention, complex patterns in woven fabrics required a labor-intensive and time-consuming manual process. With the Jacquard loom, intricate patterns could be woven automatically. The structure of a Jacquard loom consists of several components:

1. Harness System: The harness system consists of a series of heddles and frames. Heddles are loops through which warp threads (longitudinal threads) are threaded. The frames hold multiple heddles and are used to raise and lower specific sets of warp threads.
2. Punched Cards: The most distinctive feature of the Jacquard loom is its use of punched cards. These cards are created by punching holes in a specific arrangement. Each card corresponds to one row of the woven pattern. By sliding the punched cards through a mechanism, the loom reads the pattern and determines which warp threads are raised or lowered during each weaving cycle.
3. Card-Reading Mechanism: The punched cards are fed through a card-reading mechanism that interprets the pattern instructions encoded in the holes. The mechanism raises or lowers the appropriate harnesses based on the card's pattern, allowing the weaver to create complex designs.
4. Shuttle and Weft Thread: The shuttle carries the weft thread (horizontal thread) across the warp threads, weaving the fabric. The loom's mechanisms control the interaction between the warp and weft threads to create the desired pattern

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vii) Analytical Engine: The Analytical Engine was a concept for a mechanical general-purpose computing machine proposed by the English mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage in the mid-19th century. While Babbage never built a complete working version of the Analytical Engine during his lifetime, his ideas laid the foundation for modern computing concepts.

Key features and aspects of the Analytical Engine include:

1. General-Purpose Computing: Babbage designed the Analytical Engine to be a general-purpose computing device, capable of performing a wide range of mathematical calculations and logical operations. It was intended to go beyond the specific tasks performed by his earlier Difference Engine, which was designed to compute tables of numbers.
2. Programmability: One of the most significant innovations of the Analytical Engine was its programmability. Babbage envisioned a machine that could be programmed using punched cards to perform different operations and calculations, allowing it to tackle various tasks.
3. Memory and Storage: The Analytical Engine included a memory unit called the "store," which could hold both data and instructions. It used punched cards for input, with each card representing a different operation or value to be stored in the machine's memory.
4. Arithmetic Unit: The engine featured an arithmetic unit capable of performing basic mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It also included a "mill" component for more complex calculations.
5. Control Unit: The control unit of the Analytical Engine was responsible for executing instructions stored on the punched cards. It would read the cards, decode the instructions, and direct the appropriate operations to be carried out by the arithmetic unit.
6. Conditional Branching: Babbage's design included a form of conditional branching, allowing the machine to execute different sequences of instructions based on the outcome of a previous calculation or operation. This concept of branching is fundamental to modern programming and is used for decision-making in algorithms.
7. Parallel Processing: The Analytical Engine's design had the potential for parallel processing, meaning that it could execute multiple operations simultaneously. This forward-thinking concept anticipated modern parallel computing.
8. Printing Mechanism: Babbage also designed a printing mechanism for the Analytical Engine, which would allow it to produce printed output of its calculations and results.
9. Unrealized Vision: Despite the visionary nature of Babbage's designs, he faced challenges in terms of funding and engineering precision. As a result, he was never able to fully construct the Analytical Engine during his lifetime. However, his work and concepts influenced subsequent generations of computer scientists and engineers

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viii) Hollerith Census Machine: Developed by Herman Hollerith in the late 19th century, this machine used punched cards to process and tabulate data for the US Census. It marked a significant step in automating data processing tasks. This machine was also a pivotal advancement in data processing and played a crucial role in the efficient processing of census data.

Key features and significance of the Hollerith Census Machine:

1. Punch Card System: Hollerith's machine used punched cards to represent data. Each card had holes punched in specific positions to represent different data attributes. This punched card system allowed for easy and standardized data input.
2. Census Data Processing: The machine was initially used for processing the United States Census data. Prior to its invention, the manual tabulation of census data was time-consuming and prone to errors. The Hollerith Census Machine automated this process, dramatically reducing the time required for data analysis.
3. Mechanical Tabulation: The machine used mechanical components, such as gears and levers, to sort and tabulate data based on the punched holes in the cards.
4. Foundation of IBM: Hollerith's machine laid the foundation for the company that eventually became International Business Machines (IBM). In 1924, IBM was formed through the merger of the Tabulating Machine Company (founded by Hollerith) with other companies in the industry.
5. Impact on Computing: The punched card concept used in the Hollerith machine had a lasting impact on the development of early computing systems. It influenced the design of early computers and data processing methods.

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ix) Burroughs Adding Machine: Invented by William S. Burroughs in the late 19th century, this mechanical calculator was designed for addition and subtraction operations. It became widely used in businesses for accounting and calculations. While it is not directly related to modern computing, it played a significant role in automating arithmetic calculations.

Key features and significance of the Burroughs Adding Machine:

1. Mechanical Calculator: The Burroughs Adding Machine was a mechanical device that used gears, levers, and other mechanical components to perform addition and subtraction calculations.
2. Efficient Calculation: Prior to the development of adding machines, calculations were often done manually, which was time-consuming and prone to errors. The Burroughs machine allowed for faster and more accurate arithmetic calculations.
3. Business Applications: The machine found widespread use in business environments where accurate calculations were crucial for accounting and financial tasks.
4. Automation: The Burroughs Adding Machine exemplified the early efforts to automate routine mathematical calculations, laying the groundwork for more advanced calculating devices and eventually digital computers.
5. Legacy: The success of the Burroughs Adding Machine and similar devices led to the continued development of mechanical calculators and eventually electronic calculators, which have become indispensable tools in various fields.

 

 Source:(history-computer.com)